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the glass castle
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1?i never believed in?santa claus.
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2?none of us kids did. mom and dad refused to let us.?they couldnt as good as other kids who, on christmas morning, found all sorts of fancy toys under the tree that were supposedly left by santa claus.?so they told us all about how other kids were?deceived?by their parents, how the toys the grown-ups claimed were made by little?elveswearing bell caps in their workshop at the north pole actually had?labels?on them saying made in japan.
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4?we celebrated christmas, but usually about a week after december 25, when you could find perfectly good bows and wrapping paper that people had thrown away and christmas trees discarded on the?roadside?that still had most of their needles and even some silver?tinsel?hanging on them.?mom and dad would give us a bag 
of?marblesor a doll or a?slingshot?that had been?marked way down?in an after-christmas sale.
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5?dad lost his job at the?gypsum?mine after getting in an argument with the?foreman, and when christmas came that year, we had no money at all.?on christmas?eve, dad took each of us kids out into the desert night one by one.?i had a blanket wrapped around me, and when it was my turn, i offered to share it with dad, but he said no thanks.?the cold never bothered him.?i was five that year and i sat next to dad and we looked up at the sky.?dad loved to talk about the stars. he explained to us how they rotated through the night sky as the earth turned. he taught us to identify the?constellations?and how to?navigate?by the north star.?those shining stars, he liked to point out, were one of the special treats for people like us who lived out in the wilderness.?rich city folks, hed have to?be out of our minds?to want to trade places with any of them.
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7?i thought about it and realized dad was right.?he was always figuring out things like that.
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8?i could have any star i wanted, dad said, except?betelgeuse?and?rigel, because?lori?and?brian?had already?laid claim to?them.
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9?i looked up to the stars and tried to figure out which was the best one.?you could see hundreds, maybe thousands or even millions, twinkling in the clear desert sky.?the longer you looked and the more your eyes adjusted to the dark, the more stars youd see,?layer?after layer of them gradually becoming visible.there was one in particular, in the west above the mountains but low in the sky, that shone more brightly than all the rest.
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10? i said.
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11?dad grinned. t even make her own light, dad said. she shone only from reflected light.?he explained to me that planets glowed because reflected light was constant, and stars?twinkled?because their light pulsed.
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12? i said.?i had admired venus even before that christmas.?you could see it in the early evening, glowing on the western?horizon, and if you got up early, you could still see it in the morning, after all the stars had disappeared.
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14?and he gave me venus.
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15?that evening over christmas dinner, we all discussed outer space.?dad explained?light yearsand?black holes?and?quasars?and told us about the special qualities of betelgeuse, rigel and venus.betelgeuse was a red star in the shoulder of the constellation?orion.?it was one of the largest stars you could see in the sky, hundreds of times bigger than the sun.?it had burned brightly for millions of years and would soon become a?supernova?and burn out.?i got upset that?lori?had chosen a?clunker?of a star, but dad explained that meant hundreds of thousands of years when you were talking about stars.
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16?rigel was a blue star, smaller than betelgeuse, dad said, but even brighter. it was also in orion – it was his left foot, which seemed appropriate, because?brian?was an extra-fast?runner.
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17?venus didn
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18?we laughed about all the kids who believed in the santa myth and got nothing for christmas but a bunch of cheap plastic toys.?
《玻璃城堡》
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1?我从来不相信有圣诞老人。
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2?我们家的小孩没一个人信，妈妈爸爸不让我们相信。?他们买不起昂贵的礼物，也不想让我们觉得我们比不上别的孩子——在圣诞节的早上，别的孩子都能在圣诞树下找到据说是圣诞老人放在那儿的各种新奇玩具。?所以，爸爸妈妈跟我们说那些孩子怎样被他们的父母骗了，说那些大人们所说的由戴着有铃铛的帽子的小精灵在他们的北极工厂里制作的玩具其实标签上都写着“日本制造”。
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3?“尽量不要看不起那些小孩，”妈妈跟我们说， “他们之所以相信这些荒唐的神话是因为他们被洗脑了，这不是他们的错”。
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4?我们也庆祝圣诞，但总是比12月25日要晚一个星期左右，因为到那时我们能找来被扔掉的完好无损的蝴蝶结和包装纸，以及被遗弃在路旁、针叶基本完好的圣诞树，树上有时甚至还悬挂着一些银色金属箔装饰物。?爸爸妈妈会送给我们一袋弹珠、一个洋娃娃或一个弹弓，那是在圣诞节后商品大减价时买来的。
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5?爸爸跟石膏矿的工头发生了争执，然后就丢了工作。当那年的圣诞节到来时，我们穷得身无分文。圣诞夜，爸爸把我们小孩子挨个带到荒野的夜幕中。?我当时身上裹着一条毛毯，在轮到我时，我要把毯子分给爸爸一些，但他说不用，谢谢。?他从来不怕冷。?那年我五岁，我挨着爸爸坐下，我们一起抬头看天空。?他喜欢聊星星，他向我们讲解星星是怎样在地球自转时在夜空中转动的，他教我们辨认星座，教我们如何根据北极星的方位来导航。?他喜欢强调一点，那些闪烁的星星是对像我们这样住在荒野上的人的特别款待。?他会说，有钱的城里人虽然住在高档公寓里，但因为那里空气污染严重，他们甚至看不到星星。?如果我们想跟他们中的任何一个交换住处，那我们一定是疯了。
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6?那天晚上，爸爸对我说：“选一个自己最喜欢的星星吧。”?他说我可以一直拥有那颗星，那就是我的圣诞礼物。?我说：“你不能给我一颗星星！没有人拥有星星。”?父亲说：“对，别人没有拥有星星，你只要在别人之前说那颗星星属于你的就行，就像拉丁佬哥伦布声称美洲属于伊莎贝拉女王那样。宣称一颗星星属于你的逻辑比起哥伦布的逻辑丝毫不差。”
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7?我琢磨了一下爸爸的话，觉得他说的有道理。?他总是以那种方法来思考问题。
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8?爸爸说，我可以要我想要的任何一颗星星，除了参宿四和参宿七（猎户座的两颗星星），因为这两颗星星洛丽和布赖恩已经认领了。
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9?我仰望夜空中的繁星，想找出最好的那一颗。?在荒野的夜空中，有成百、成千甚至上万颗星星在闪烁。?看的时间越久，你的眼睛就越适应黑夜，你就可以看见更多的星星。一层又一层的，渐渐地变得越来越清晰可见。?其中有一颗很特别，它在山的西面，但处于低空，比任何一颗星星都耀眼。
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10?“我要那颗，”我说。
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11?爸爸笑了，“那是金星，”他说。?金星只是一颗行星，他接着讲，与真正的恒星相比她非常小。?她看上去更大、更亮是因为她比其他星星离我们近得多。?爸爸说，可怜的金星甚至不能自己发光，她发出的光是反射光。?他跟我解释说行星之所以发出稳定的光，是因为反射光是恒定光；恒星闪烁，是因为它们的光是脉冲光。
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12?“无论如何，我就喜欢这颗星，”我说。?早在那个圣诞节之前我就喜欢金星了。?在傍晚时分，你就能看见它照耀在西方的地平线上，如果你起得早，你会看见，所有的星星都消失了，唯独她还在。
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13?“没关系，”爸爸说，“这是圣诞节，如果你只想要一颗行星，你就要好了。”
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14?于是，他把金星给了我。
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15?那天晚上吃圣诞晚餐时，我们一起谈论了外太空。?爸爸向我们讲解了光年、黑洞、类星体，并告诉了我们参宿四、参宿七以及金星的特征。?参宿四是猎户座猎人肩上的一颗红色的星星。?它是天空中肉眼能看到的最大的星星之一，比太阳还要大几百倍。?它已经熊熊燃烧了几百万年，很快就要变成超新星，燃尽熄灭。?我为洛丽挑了一颗破旧的老星而感到难过，但爸爸解释说，就星星而言，“很快”意味着几十万年之后。
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16?参宿七是一颗蓝色的星星，比参宿四小，爸爸说，但比它亮，同属猎户座，在猎人的左脚上。这颗星看起来很适合布赖恩，因为他跑得超快。
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17?金星没有像月亮那样的卫星或其他卫星，甚至没有磁场，但它有类似于地球的大气层，但金星的大气层超级热，温度大约高达五百度或更高。?“所以，”爸爸说，“当太阳即将燃尽，地球变冷的时候，地球上的每一个人可能都想搬到金星上取暖。这样的话，他们首先要获得你们子孙的同意才行。”
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18?我们嘲笑那些相信圣诞童话的小孩，他们除了一堆廉价的塑料玩具外什么也没有得到。?“再过些年，他们得到的那些垃圾玩具都坏了，早就被他们遗忘了，”爸爸说，“你们的星星却依旧在空中闪耀。”
cultural childhoods
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1?when i look back on my own childhood in the 1970s and 1980s and compare it with children today, it reminds me of that famous sentence s lives and in the ways they are thought about and treated.
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2?looking further back i can see vast differences between contemporary and historical childhoods.today, children have few responsibilities, their lives are characterized by play not work, school not paid labour, family rather than public life and?consumptioninstead of production.?yet this is all relatively recent.a hundred years ago, a 12-year-old working in a factory would have been perfectly?acceptable. now, it would cause social services?intervention?and the?prosecution?of both parents and the factory owner.
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3?the differences between the expectations placed on children today and those placed on them in the past are neatly summed up by two american writers,?barbara ehrenreich?and?deirdre english.comparing childhoods in america today with those of the american?colonial?period (1600 – 1776), they have written:
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4?these changing ideas about children have led many social scientists to claim that childhood is a .?they use this term to mean that understandings of childhood are not the same everywhere and that while all societies acknowledge that children are different from adults, how they are different and what expectations are placed on them change according to the society in which they live.
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5?social?anthropologists?have shown this in their studies of peoples with very different?understandingsof the world to western ones.?jean briggs?has worked with the?inuit?of?the canadian arctic?and has described how, within these communities, growing up is?largely?seen as a process of acquiring thought, reason and understanding (known in inuit as?ihuma).young children dons only when they are older and begin to acquire thought that parents attempt to teach them or discipline them.
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6?in contrast, children on the pacific islands of?tonga, studied by?helen morton, are regularly beaten by their parents and older siblings.?they are seen as being closer to mad people than adults because they lack the highly prized quality of social?competence?(or?poto?as the?tongans?call it).?they are regularly?told off?for being clumsy and a child who?falls over?may be laughed at, shouted at, or beaten.?children are thought of as?mischievous; they cry or want to feed simply because they are naughty, and?beatings?are at their most severe between the ages of three and five when children are seen as particularly?wilful.?parents believe that social competence can only be achieved through discipline and physical punishment, and treat their children in ways that have seemed very?harsh?to?outsiders.
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7?in other cases, ideas about children are?radicallydifferent.?for example, the?beng, a small?ethnicgroup in west africa, assume that very young children know and understand everything that is said to them, in whatever language they are addressed.the beng, whot.
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8?therere deemed incompetent and?irresponsible.?in other cultures, this is not the case.?michelle johnson?has written about the?fulani?of west africa describing how by the age of four, girls are expected to be able to care for their younger siblings, fetch water and?firewood?and by the age of six will be pounding grain, producing milk and butter and selling these alongside their mothers in the market.
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9?across the world, among the?yanomam??of the?amazonia?rainforest, another anthropologist,?napoleon chagnon, has shown how different these childrens competence and responsibilities are understood very differently.
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10?social anthropologists ask questions about how childhood, and the role of children, is seen within the communities they study, rather than how it fits into western ideas about childhood.?by doing this they seek to avoid?imposing?outside ideas onto people with very different understandings of the world or making value?judgments?on other peoplet know how to look after children properly.
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11?childhood is a changing social phenomenon, of?continual?fascination?and concern.?looking at it from a cross-cultural?perspective?shows the wide variety of childhoods that exist across the world and warns against interfering in or criticizing people whose lives, and understandings of the world, are very different to our own.?all societies recognize that children are different to adults and have particular qualities and needs; what anthropologists and other social scientists are interested in are the ideas that each society has about the nature of childhood and the impact these views have on childrens lives.
不同文化的童年
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1?当我回顾20世纪七八十年代我的童年时光，并将它与现在孩子的童年相比较时，就会想起一句名言：“往昔是异国他乡，那里有不同的习俗”（见 l. p. 哈特利的小说《传信人》）。?甚至在相对短暂的一段时间内，我也能够察觉到儿童的生活以及人们对儿童的看法、对待儿童的方式上所经历的巨大变化。
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2?回顾更久远的岁月，我可以看到现在和历史上童年生活的巨大差别。?如今的儿童责任很少，他们生活的主要内容是玩耍而非工作，上学而非劳动，在家里呆着而不是和外界交往，消费而非生产。?这种变化也是最近才显现出来的。?一百年前，12岁的孩子在工厂打工是完全可以接受的事情，而现在，这会招来社会服务机构的介入，其父母和工厂主会被起诉。
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3?有两位美国作家，芭芭拉?埃伦赖希和迪尔德丽?英格利希，她们简要地概括了过去和现在人们对儿童的期待的差异。?在比较美国现在的儿童和殖民地时期（1600—1776）的儿童时，她们写道:“今天，如果一个四岁的孩子能自己系鞋带就很了不起了。而在殖民地时期，四岁的女孩会织长筒袜和连指手套，能做复杂的刺绣，六岁就能纺毛线了。一个善良勤快的女孩被称为‘夫人’而不是‘小姐’，这是为了表彰她对家庭经济的贡献，严格说来她不是一个孩子了。”
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4?对儿童的看法不断变化着，这使得许多社会科学家宣称童年是一种“社会建构”。?他们用这个术语来说明不同的地区对童年的理解是不一样的，虽然所有社会都承认儿童与成年人有区别，至于他们之间有何不同，人们对儿童又有何期待，不同的社会给出了不一样的答案。
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5?社会人类学家在研究那些跟西方国家持有不同世界观的民族时也表明了这个观点。?琼·布里格斯研究过加拿大北极地区的伊努伊特人，她描述了在这些社会群落中成长是怎样大体上被看成是一个获得思想、理性和理解力（伊努伊特人称之为ihuma）的过程。?小孩子不具备这些素质，所以才容易生气， 常常会哭，无法理解群落所面临的诸如食物短缺之类的外在困难。?由于无法跟他们讲理，即便讲了他们也不明白，父母对他们很宽容、很温和。?一直要等到他们年龄大一点，并开始有自己的思想时，父母才会尝试着去管教他们，约束他们。
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6?相反，根据海伦·莫顿的研究，太平洋岛国汤加的儿童经常挨父母和哥哥姐姐的打。?人们认为儿童和成年人相比更像疯子，因为他们缺乏被大家看重的社会能力（汤加人称之为?poto）。?小孩子经常因为笨手笨脚而挨骂，他们连摔跤都会被嘲笑、呵斥，甚至被打。?人们认为儿童很顽皮，都是因为淘气他们才哭闹，或者要东西吃。在大人看来，三至五岁的儿童尤其任性，因此他们打这个年龄段的孩子也打得最狠。?父母们相信，只有靠训导和体罚才能使孩子获得社会能力，所以他们用一种在外人看来非常严厉的方式对待孩子。
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7?在其他的例子中，有关儿童的观念则截然不同。例如，西非的一个叫孟加拉的很小的族群认为，不管说什么、用什么语言说，小孩子都能听明白，并且能理解。?另一位人类学家阿尔玛·戈特利布对孟加拉族进行了广泛的研究，孟加拉族人认为小孩子出生前居住在灵界，在那里他们通晓人类所有的语言，能理解所有的文化。?灵界的生活很惬意，小孩子在那里有很多朋友，他们通常极不愿意离开那儿，来到地球上的家庭中（本·奥克雷的小说《饥饿之路》就描述了一个小孩在灵界和人世之间往返的故事）。?他们出生后仍然与那个世界保持长达数年的联系，如果没有得到良好的照顾，他们就可能要返回灵界。?因此，父母们悉心照料孩子，以免他们受到诱惑，回归灵界，而且对他们也有几分敬畏，因为他们具备大人所不具备的通灵的本领。
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8?在英国及其他西方国家，越来越多的人认为儿童缺乏能力，依赖性强。?但也不是全世界的人都持这种看法。?在很多社会里，孩子从小就开始工作，寻找各种机会为家里挣钱。?看管孩子就是个很好的例子。?在英国，14岁以下的儿童在没有成人监督的情况下照看其他孩子是非法的，因为人们认为他们缺少看孩子的能力和责任心。?而在其他文化里，情况并非如此。?米歇尔·约翰逊曾写过西非的富拉尼族女孩四岁就得照看年幼的弟弟妹妹，要打水、拾柴，六岁就得舂米、挤奶、做黄油，并和妈妈一起到市场上去贩卖这些东西。
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9?另一位人类学家拿破仑?沙尼翁证实了在世界的另一端，地处亚马孙雨林的雅诺马马族孩子的童年与西方孩子的童年有什么不同，以及那里的男孩儿女孩儿们跟世界上其他地方的男孩儿女孩儿的成长方式的差异。?他写道，雅诺马马族女孩儿很小就得帮妈妈做家务，到十岁就开始管家。?到十二三岁时可能就结婚生子了。?男孩儿的责任则要少得多，他们比女孩儿晚结婚，可以玩到十八九岁。?西方的童年观在这里根本不适用，因为这里的人们对儿童的能力和责任有着完全不同的理解。
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社会人类学家探寻的是在他们所研究的族群里人们是如何看待童年，以及儿童扮演的角色问题，而不是研究那些地区的童年观是否符合西方的观念。他们这么做是为了避免把外界的观念强加给那些持不同世界观的人身上，或者是为了避免对其他民族养育孩子的方式作价值观方面的判断。?西方人可能会反对八岁的女孩儿打工，反对12岁的女孩儿结婚，但在他们自己的族群里，这些事情被视为童年生活的一个积极的常态。?的确，在非西方人看来，许多“正常的”西方育儿方式极其怪异，可能对孩子是有害的。?让孩子在自己的屋里呆着，想吃东西的时候不给他们吃，或者任由他们哭闹而不赶快去安抚他们，这些在很多社会里都是不对的事情，会让人觉得西方人根本不懂得如何照看孩子。
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童年是一种处于变化之中的社会现象，具有持续的吸引力，并且不断受到关注。?从跨文化角度来看待这个问题能展示出世界上各种各样的童年生活，并警示我们不要随意干涉或指责那些生活方式及世界观跟我们不一样的人。?所有的社会都承认儿童和成年人是不同的，他们有自己的品性和需求；人类学家和社会科学家感兴趣的是每个社会对儿童的天性都有什么样的看法，以及这些看法会如何影响儿童的生活。
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childhood around the world
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my jewish grandmother used to live close by. she was a?marvelous?cook and there would always be something happening in the kitchen. when a religious festival was approaching, she used to be busy all day preparing a?sumptuous?family dinner for the evening. as a child, i would often stay with my grandparents and so i was her helper. i used to feel really proud going to the larder to fetch the eggs, carrying them back carefully so as not to drop them. the?larder?smelled of everything all at once, flour, spices, honey, oil, wood. i would watch her every move and she would describe everything she was doing in detail so that i would learn. “pass me that?fella?there,” she would say, pointing to a frying pan or an onion. everything was important.
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i spent my childhood with my grandmother. i have a funny memory of her. she used to smoke cigarettes that she rolled herself in a piece of newspaper. when she was not home, i decided to try the same. i rolled a piece of newspaper without tobacco inside. then i lit the roll and tried to smoke it. it burned quickly all the way up to my nose. i was so embarrassed. even now, my family talks about that incident.
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when i was a child, i would play with stray cats and dogs in the neighbourhood. i trained them. we played games which could be called “teachers and students”, “doctors and patients”, “sellers and?buyers”, “robbers?and their leader”, and so on. one day when i came home with “my friends” following me, my mother was shocked. she shouted at me, and i promised that it would never happen again. however, she found me once again in my room with my dogs playing a game: “the chorus and the?orchestra”.
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during the summers my parents took us on camping trips around the us, including the grand canyon,?mount rushmore, with its enormous carved heads of past presidents, and?yellowstone park. but perhaps the trip i remember best was when we went to europe. my father was working in belgium, and i remember how strange it was being surrounded by people speaking a language i didn’t understand. my parents wanted to see as much of europe as possible, so we went on lots of visits to?the eiffel tower?in paris,?tower bridge?in london and the?colosseum?in rome and many other famous places. but we never stayed one place for too long. i only have snapshot memories of the sights we saw, but very little of the places themselves.
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世界各地的童年
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以前，我的犹太奶奶和我住得很近。她做得一手好菜，厨房里从来没有消停的时候。每逢宗教节日临近，她都要忙上一整天，为家人准备丰盛的晚宴。小时候我经常和爷爷奶奶在一起，也就成了奶奶的帮厨。那时我对自己能到储藏室把鸡蛋完好无损地取回来感到非常自豪。储藏室里五味俱全，里面有面粉、香料、蜂蜜、食用油、柴禾。我总在观察奶奶的每一个动作，她会把手头的每一样活都细细地解释给我听，教我怎么做。她经常会说“把那东西递给我”，手指着一个炒菜锅或是一颗洋葱。每件事都很重要。
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我的童年是跟奶奶过的，说起她就让我想起一段有趣的往事。她经常用报纸卷烟抽。有一天她不在家，我想学她的样，就用报纸卷了一个烟卷，但里面没放烟丝。我点燃报纸卷，放到嘴里吸，报纸很快就烧到了我的鼻头上。我觉得很丢脸，至今家里人还时常提起这件糗事。
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我小时候常和附近的流浪猫、流浪狗玩。我训练它们，我们一起玩“老师和学生”、“医生和病人”、“售货员和顾客”、“抢劫犯和他们的头儿”等游戏。一天，我回家时后面跟了一帮“朋友”，妈妈吓坏了。她冲我直嚷嚷，我只好答应她以后再也不带它们回家了。可是后来有一次，她又发现我在自己屋里和好几只狗一起玩“合唱队与乐团”的游戏。
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在暑假期间，我父母带着我们在美国各地进行露营旅行，包括大峡谷、拉什穆尔山和黄石公园。拉什穆尔山上有美国历史上几任总统的巨型头像。但我记忆最深的旅行也许是欧洲之行。我的父亲在比利时工作。我记得当时听着周围人讲我听不懂的语言感觉很奇怪。我的父母想要尽量多地游览欧洲，所以我们去了很多地方，包括巴黎埃菲尔铁塔、伦敦塔桥、罗马竞技场以及其他许多著名的地方。但是我们从来不会在一个地方久待。我只能通过照片来回忆当时看到的景点，但是对于景点本身已经没什么印象了。
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parents in the west know all too well the weaknesses of overprotected children. they are risk-averse (害怕冒险), have difficulty making decisions, and lack the means to become successful in life. during their university years, many of them cannot reasonably adjust to the rigours of university life, and often drop out. therefore, parents place a high premium on developing independence in their children. they provide plenty of opportunities for their children to learn independent thinking skills, and make them understand that independence skills will help them become more efficient and empowered, in their classrooms and out of them. moreover, parents encourage independence by providing limited choices for their children, respecting their preferences and helping them achieve excellence in the tasks they perform. they also involve their children in planning and decision-making processes, asking them to suggest ideas. most important of all, they encourage their children to do all kinds of tasks on their own, including everyday household chores, and often give them positive reinforcement rather than finding fault with their conduct.在西方，做父母的非常了解受父母过度保护的孩子的弱点：这些孩子害怕冒险，缺乏决断力，缺少在现实生活中获得成功的手段；上大学时，许多人无法较好地适应大学生活的严苛，退学是常有的事。因此，父母非常注重培养孩子独立自主的能力。他们给孩子提供大量的学习独立思考技能的机会，让孩子认识到独立自主的能力可以提升他们在课堂内外的学习效率及表现。此外，他们还给孩子有限的选择，尊重孩子的偏好，帮助孩子出色地完成各项任务，以这种方式鼓励他们独立自主。他们还让孩子参与筹划和决策的过程，让他们提出自己的看法。尤其重要的是，他们鼓励孩子独立完成各项任务——包括日常家务活，并经常给予正面的鼓励，避免对他们的行为吹毛求疵。
与父辈相比，现在的孩子在物质生活上要丰富得多，但在精神上则略有欠缺。他们不太可能和伙伴们一起玩，玩具取代伙伴成了他们最忠实的朋友。他们的父母从不缺钱给他们买各种贵重玩具。这样的好处是：他们不再整天缠着父母，因为玩具和电子游戏减轻了他们的孤独感。但也有负面影响：沉迷于玩具和电子游戏会让孩子视力下降或者让他们不愿意与别人交流。这种现象应引起家长和学校的关注
compared with the childhood of their parents, children now do enjoy a far better material life, but their emotional life seems less satisfying. they are less likely to play with their peers, for toys have replaced their playmates as their most loyal friends. their parents can always afford to buy them all kinds of expensive toys. the good thing about this is that they no longer pester their parents to play with them all day long, because toys and video games have lessened their feelings of loneliness. but there are also negative effects: the addiction to toys and video games may cause a childs eyesight to deteriorate or result in reluctance to communicate with others. these 
phenomena should demand the attention of both parents and schools.
